Five Pages of Group Development

Describe the five stages of group development briefly and explain how relationships form in groups. There is no doubt that great communication is important, and this in no different when working in groups. Stage one of the five stages of group development is basically the getting to know each member of the group. Getting to know the group allows each member to talk about one another’s strengths, weaknesses, and what is expected from the group. During this stage it is also important to choose a leader, set up an agenda and create deadlines to reach the end goal. Stage two is for brainstorming and creative thinking. The challenging part of stage two is to make sure everyone is heard, everyone’s feelings are expressed productively, and creativity is fostered among the team. Stage three has some challenging characteristics in this stage the skills, energy, and individual spirit of each team member is coordinated into the work being done so far. Stage four should be seen as the point where the team becomes independent and removes the leader. This allows the group to openly communicate each members work to make sure the project is on task and any problems are quickly addressed as not to delay the assignment. Stage five is communicating the end and adjourning the group. This final stage allows for each group member to talk about the entire process, while communicating if the member’s expectations were met. Communication within a group should be open and honest; if a break-down occurs changes must me made. When a group’s communication fails, the task will also fail. Role of communication in group development works like in the human body. Communication role starts the moment when the group member get together very first time in forming phase, be that face to face interaction or in virtual word. Through interaction each member assesses other member behavior patterns, personality, professionalism, there willing to work with the group and group’s goal. Communication plays essential part in building perception as well. It helps in making correct decisions, and creating positive perception in the eyes of group members. When group member enters in storming phases, which is also called as Confrontive or Power phase, the challenges of this group stage is that every member should get to express their feelings productively , to avoid any misunderstanding and fraction between them. Member interact with each other and their thoughts, views and ideas clashes, in this having proper communication skills are very significant, as it will help the group to stay on track and understand each other’s opinion in cohesive, understanding and open environment. In case of virtual team, proper communication establish clear expectations, resolving conflict, decision making and to build trust. Virtual teams work best when there is a strong communication structure in the organization or area which clarifies shared expectations and people are willingly communicate openly and honestly. Communication is the key to resolve conflict, between group members to come to consensus, and it also helps members move positively from conflicts towards commitment to the group. Lack of good communication between members can result in arising more personal conflicts which can take group to a different track and group goal can suffer. In norming stage also called as constructive stage, communication help members to sharing ideas, feelings and giving feedback to each other and soliciting feedback, exploring actions and sharing information related to the task. It also support in fostering diversity in the group and taking the most use of it, by understanding and encouraging members to contribute in discussion and present their understandings. Group members start to know each other personality and, communication helps in building relationship among team members. In performing stage, also called as productive stage, group perform as well organized unit, they are interdependent and work through issues smoothly and effectively by using effective and efficient communication.

Family vs. Family

Between the two short stories, â€Å"Sonny’s Blues† by James Baldwin and â€Å"Everyday Use† by Alice Walker, they reveal similarities and differences. Both stories are similar in the importance of family ties and the way they view family, but differ in sibling relations. In â€Å"Sonny’s Blues†, the siblings want to recreate their brotherly bond again, but in â€Å"Everyday Use† there is no sign of healing the hole between Dee, Maggie, and Mama. First, we will look at the importance of family ties between both stories. In â€Å"Everyday Use† the characters have strong connections with family ties and their heritage. Not ‘Dee,’Wangero Leewanika Kemanjo! † (280). Dee changing her name to Wangero tells the reader that Dee believes by changing her name to a more â€Å"African† name is confirming her African heritage. Having this new name, Wangero â€Å"kills† Dee, so theoretically by changing her name she is killing off her own family heritage. Similarly, in â€Å"Sonny’s Blues† the two brothers have importance in family ties too. When the narrator’s mother says, â€Å"You got to hold on to your brother,† she said, â€Å"and don't let him fall, no matter what it looks like is happening to him and no matter how evil you gets with him.You going to be evil with him many a time. But don't you forget what I told you, you hear? † (264-265). The mother makes the narrator (brother) promise her to take care of Sonny no matter what. This shows us the unconditional love of the family, or family in general. All the mother wants is for Sonny to be taken care of and looked after when she can no longer look after him anymore. Also, from the article To the Deep Water James Baldwin's â€Å"Sonny's Blues† by McParland, Robert P. , he says â€Å"Sonny has reached a point of breakthrough and he is giving his life back in music.Here Baldwin provides a beautifull y lyrical passage suggesting generation and memory, as Sonny plays. Sonny's music restores to the narrator memory, community, and family. † This here is another reference towards family and family ties. Except this time it is through Sonny’s new found talent, music. His music was so powerful, he abstractly injects his own family memories into the music and makes the narrator (brother) remember his mother’s face and his father. From another article called, In Spite of It All: Reading of Alice Walker’s ‘Everyday Use. By Whitsitt, Sam, he states, â€Å"When the flashy Dee finally does return, greeting her mother in Arabic and declaring that she no longer bears the name â€Å"Dee,† but the African name â€Å"Wangero,† and that â€Å"Dee,† † ‘She's dead' † (29)–it's as if there is not even a tombstone to mark the presence of her absence. Her return seems less a return than a passing by; she appears a curious visitor who has momentarily stopped off a road which began and ends elsewhere. † I agree with what Whitsitt says about Dee. He says that because of her changing her name to â€Å"Wangero†, her return back home to visit should not be called a return, but merely a passing by.By changing from â€Å"Dee† to â€Å"Wangero†, it is as if she has never existed in the first place. Another similarity I found is a bit complex, but also relates to a sense of family. It occurs when Dee says, â€Å"I couldn’t bear it any longer, being named after the people who oppress me. † (280). This means that Dee feels she is being held back from her culture not being named something more close to what her background is and that she is basically being suppressed by the white man for having a name like Dee.Similarly, in â€Å"Sonny’s Blues† the notion of being suppressed black males is also given to Sonny and his brother. It is depicted by the description of the father’s brother’s death. â€Å"This car was full of white men. They was all drunk, and when they seen your father's brother they let out a great whoop and holler and they aimed the car straight at him. They was having fun, they just wanted to scare him, the way they do sometimes, you know. But they was drunk. And I guess the boy, being drunk, too, and scared, kind of lost his head.By the time he jumped it was too late. † (264). The mother interprets the position and situation of a black male when she tells us what the fathers attitude is after the death of the his brother, â€Å"Till the day he died he weren't sure but that every white man he saw was the man that killed his brother. † (264). This exposes to us the suppressed fear and hatred that was hidden inside of the father towards the whites. In the article James Baldwin’s ‘Sonny’s Blues’: Complicated and Simple by Murray, Donald C. he says â€Å"His brother respon ds deeply to Sonny’s music because he knows that he is with his black brothers and is watching his own brother, grinning and â€Å"soaking wet. † This further proves that the aspect of family can be seen differently. By looking at it as heritage, the author explains that the narrator of â€Å"Sonny’s Blues† is greatly affected by the music Sonny plays because he feels at home now, or â€Å"with his black brothers† as he denotes it. One difference between the stories is that in Walker’s â€Å"Everyday Use†, the relationship among siblings nearly dominates the story because it is shown is several places.For example, â€Å"How long ago was it that the other house burned? Ten, twelve years? Sometimes I can still hear the flames and feel Maggie's arms sticking to me, her hair smoking and her dress falling off her in little black papery flakes. Her eyes seemed stretched open, blazed open by the flames reflected in them. And Dee. I see her standing off under the sweet gum tree she used to dig gum out of; a look of concentration on her face as she watched the last dingy gray board of the house fall in toward the red-hot brick chimney. Why don't you do a dance around the ashes?I'd wanted to ask her. She had hated the house that much. † (279). We can deduce from this that there was some tension going on between the Dee, Maggie, and the mother. The fact that Dee was standing alone to the side, it tells us that there was some tension or hatred going on between Dee, Maggie, and mother. In addition, it is also important to note the fact that Dee being well educated contributes to her thinking she is better than Maggie or mother. Now, compared to â€Å"Sonny’s Blues†, Sonny and the narrator are extremely different.We do not feel any tension or hate happening, but a sense of recovery. For example, when the narrator says, â€Å"The seven years' difference in our ages lay between us like a chasm: I wondered if these years would ever operate between us as a bridge. I was remembering, and it made it hard to catch my breath, that I had been there when he was born; and I had heard the first words he had ever spoken. When he started to walk, he walked from our mother straight to me. I caught him just before he fell when he took the first steps he ever took in this world. (259). This insinuates that Sonny’s brother wants to mend the opening that has developed in their relationship with one another and attempt to get closer to Sonny. In the article Alice Walker’s Everyday Use by Nancy Tuten, she states â€Å"It is not surprising, then, that Mama, mistrustful of language expresses herself in the climactic scene of the story not through words but through deeds: she HUGS Maggie to her, DRAGS her in the room where Dee sits holding the quilts, SNATCHES the quilts from Dee, and DUMPS them into Maggie’s lap.Only as an afterthought does she speak at all, telling Dee to â€Å"ta ke one or two of the others. † Mama’s actions, not her words, silence the daughter who has, up to this point, used language to control others and separate herself from the community: Mama tells us that Dee turns and leaves the room â€Å"without a word†. This quote depicts an image of tension and anger because Mama is not using her words to express her anger, but instead through actions. We can clearly see now that there is indeed a rift between Dee and the rest of her family, but Dee is not willing to mend the wounds in their relationship.Despite the differences in sibling/family relations brought up in James Baldwin’s â€Å"Sonny’s Blues† and Alice Walker’s â€Å"Everyday Use†, they have the same view on family ties and the way they view family. Every family is different regardless of race, ethnicity, or what have you. Every individual is different and the same in their own ways. That is why the contrast between two loving bro thers and two conflicting sisters and mother will all have their differences and similarities. Some characteristics will just be more dominant, but you both will share the good times and hard times.

Benefits of Oil of Oregano Essay

Benefits of Oil of Oregano Introduction                   Oregano oil is a natural substance extracted from wild oregano plant, which is very useful for human health as they help in killing harmful microorganisms responsible for causing illness in human body. The oregano oil is linked to its properties since it can be used as an antifungal anti-inflammatory. The oil is through steam distillation of the leaves. The herb is used to treat respiratory disorders, menstrual crumbs and some urinary disorders. The oil is also for some skin conditions like acnes. The aromatic flavors found in oregano oil are very essential for cooling. It can be used in meat since it helps reduce the toxic components present in the meat, which are created during the cooking process.                   The oil can be used for fighting off infections in homes since it fights off multi drug resistance bacteria. It can also be beneficial to animals to prevent occasional diarrhea supplemented with probiotics. Although the oils can be beneficial for dietary supplement, it is not advisable to use on children in large quantities on children under the age of six years. The oil is useful for regulating menstruation and delaying menopauses. Women can use this oil for improving their mood balance and oncoming menopause. These oils are very important for our daily health benefits and should be used regularly (Bowden, J. 2007  the 150 healthiest foods on earth).                   Another major benefits of Oil of Oregano is the fact that an individual can directly apply it on the skin. However, there is need to dilute it first. Another healthy benefit of oil of oregano is that it plays significant role during digestion (Bowden, 2007). This is because it persuades the flow of bile in the entire digestive organs. With this perspective, one can argue that it helps in improving the digestion procedure. Oil of Oregano can also be used when one has a sore throat. An individual is advised to take 3 drops of oil of oregano each. For a couple of five days, the symptoms fade away. Thus, oil of oregano plays critical role in our body. Why coconut water should be included in your daily diet                   Coconut water has proven to be good for our health. However, it is crucial to understand some of the drinks that one should substitute with coconut water. For instance, one should not substitute clean or filtered water with coconut water. This entails that they should never refrain from taking clean water. Some of the drinks such as tea, coffee and colas can be substituted with coconut water. In addition, one should also drink coconut water immediately it has been cut. This is because when one takes it immediately it is cut; he or she will be in a position to get nutritional benefits as it fresh and rich in nutrients. Furthermore, pure coconut water is claimed to be fresh and has no additives. In relation to this, it is said to have no cholesterol and thus, it can play significant role in our body.                   Many studies argue that drinking coconut water makes our body health. This entails that it is crucial to include coconut water in every meal. There are many benefits associated with coconut water. For example, some studies argue that coconut water helps to prevent dehydration in our body. This means that every individual should include coconut water in his or her diet. Another major benefit that coconut water plays in our body is that it helps to reduce fatigue or tiredness that people feel lazy. For instance, it replenish the lost of natural salt that people looses during sweating. Thus, it helps to replace the water lost through sweating (Wilson & Wilson, 2002). With this regard, one can argue that it helps to make an individual look more energetic.                   Other studies argue that coconut water also plays some critical role in our body. For example, they help in building up the entire immunity. This is a case where it improves the functions of kidney. It also helps in preventing some of the urinary tract infections that has become prone to people (Wilson & Wilson, 2002). For a couple of years, coconut water has been used as one way of lowering high rate of blood pressure. Thus, it is quit advisable to include coconut water in our daily diet.                   Researchers have found several benefits of coconut water on pregnant women. For instance, it helps in reducing some of the morning complications that they suffer. They also help to reduce some of the common symptoms in pregnant women such as constipation that many of them suffer from. They also reduce the level of acidity in pregnant mother. Due to these benefits one gets from drinking coconut water, it is clear to argue that they should include them in their daily diet. References Wilson, R., & Wilson, R. (2002). Aromatherapy: Essential oils for vibrant health and beauty. New York: Avery. Bowden, J. (2007). The 150 healthiest foods on earth: The surprising, unbiased truth about what you should eat and why. Gloucester, Mass: Fair Winds Press. Source document

America at Mid Century (US History) Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

America at Mid Century (US History) - Assignment Example He made decisions crucial to war and peace of the nations. What is significant about this case is not only about the children and schools but also about the human tendency to prejudice people according to their race, color, religion, gender and ethnicity. At that time, racial prejudice was so strife that blacks are not allowed to enter public facilities and to attend same schools. The case is significant as the ruling of the Supreme Court to stop racial segregation of the white and black children became a turning point of the country development. This ruling became the basis for the future legal policies of human rights {Brown vs. Board. 2004)). In 1954, the Brown vs. Board of Education was a legal protest on the right of the blacks to attend same school with the whites. The ruling of the law in favor of the blacks eventually opened the doors for equal treatment to children in education and to other public facilities. The case became so controversial that even President Eisenhower got so concerned and had to send army troops to Arkansas in 1957 at the height of the segregation crisis. (Almanac, p.554) The significance of the Brown Case can still be felt until this day. Today, color discrimination is almost non-existent and have accepted the blacks in the society not only in the United States but also worldwide. In fact, the United States have elected the first black U.S.

A Radical Reinterpretation for the Soviet Union Essay

A Radical Reinterpretation for the Soviet Union - Essay Example Reagan and Thatcher, both took the dynamics of conservative approach of politics, such as the severancesgovernmental law of legislation, electoral command, and media treatment for implementing such programs on the ground of national and economic policy. The relationship between both allies (the Soviet Union and the USA) of the Second World War deteriorate after the war period severance on the ground of control of world power already started between the world’s top two powerful nation even before the war. Knowing as the cold war, the rival relationship between these two nations mainly started due to their complete opposite standpoints regarding the management and execution of politics and economic functionalities. When America believed in a democratic political environment, Soviet accepted the policy of dictatorship and autocratic− completely different from democratic orientation. Communist believes the Soviet Union wanted to demoralize the doctrine of ‘Survival of the fittest’ of capitalist America. During the Second World War for defeating Germany and Italy, the associate nations expressed interest to handshake with the communist Soviet Union though both Russia and the USA did not like to agree on that iss ue. Differences in thought between Russia and the USA started to gather the momentum on the ground of allocation of power at the post-war period. After the war, when Russia and the Allies partners divided the territories of Germany into their respective occupancies, the relationship of Russia with the USA and Great Britain turned out into a bitter state of affairs. In one hand Russia almost took the controlling power of eastern Europe in its hand. On the other hand, Britain and especially the USA wanted to prevent the stretching of the power of communism in the world.  

Decolonizing Pacific Studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Decolonizing Pacific Studies - Essay Example Imperialism vividly describes all the events that occurred during colonialism, and during the entire period that this process occurred, there are many historical accounts written to express the emotions of the local people during this critical period. The process of imperialism began with historical figures such as Christopher Columbus a long time ago, and these people were the ancestors of colonization. Indeed, colonialism and imperialism are synonymous, and they both had similar goals in the systematic areas that they were adopted.The primary aim of imperialism was to cater for the expansion of Europe, as the lands that were under these powerful countries had abundant raw materials that would help boost the industrial sector in the developed and more advanced nations (Smith, 1999).Colonization was the immediate result of imperialism, and it helped the countries that ruled over the others to attain raw materials, the best agricultural products and ready labor for the colonizer. Late r on the indigenous people of this era began to fill the pinch of colonization, they understood what was occurring and began studying various concepts concerning imperialism.The native population put up their structures and had particular systems of order in place as they started enlightening themselves on the rule of law. Imperialism had at that time destabilized the fabric of many indigenous communities, and it had disconnected them from much of their life including their home, people, culture, language and beliefs.

Essay on "The Act of Writing in the Age of Numbers"

On "The Act of Writing in the Age of Numbers" - Essay Example ces in technology like electric typewriters and social media posts make it increasingly harder because they make readers focus far more on a piece of writings numbers than on its content. While Marches argument seems a little odd, he does make a good point that readers should not get into the habit of thinking that how many words a piece of literature contain, or how many times it has been shared, are what makes it so special. One example which shows very well what Marche argues is that of a post made to Facebook or another social media website by someone who is a celebrity. This post would immediately be shared widely, and would get high numbers that might make it seem of huge importance to everybody. However, those high numbers would not necessarily mean that the article is really important. On the other hand, an post shared by a regular person might actually be very meaningful and highly relevant, despite not being widely shared. This is what Marche talks about when he says that "relevance has become nearly identical with its quantification." (Marche) Another area where words of a different sort matter is that of essays written by students in college courses. As Marche points out, the first attempts to put a word count on an essay assignment resulted in students paying too much attention to it, and not to the essays content (Marche). By making such a big point out of the number of words that an essay contains, a professor might be teaching students to make sure that the essay is the right length first, and make sure it has a good argument second. It would make more sense in this case to focus on what the essay does, rather than its length. In works of literature like poems and novels, Marche argues that far from numbers never having mattered, they are where English literature "begins." (Marche) While he is right that poetry and verse rely on numbering systems to be effective, he also discusses that a lot of poets continually struggled against these

How the environment plays a role in learning Research Paper

How the environment plays a role in learning - Research Paper Example (Dr. Maria Montessori) INTRODUCTION The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines learning as â€Å"the act or experience of one that learns†, â€Å"Knowledge or skill acquired by study† or modification of a behavioral tendency by experience (as exposure to conditioning). The two ideas central to the process of learning are one that knowledge is inborn and two, that it is acquired through experience. Though the relative contribution of these two factors still remains debatable, there is no doubt to the fact that an individual’s environment does influence the learning process (Ireson, 2008). For a child the major environmental factors in order of appearance in his life are parents or family, media, peer group, and classroom or school. The author intends to discuss the influence of each of these factors on the learning process in this paper. EFFECT OF ENVIRONMNET ON LEARNING The major factor determining the influence of environment on learning is related to observational and imitative learning which emerges in the early stages of child development. Beyond imitation, children are also seen to assess the implication of behavior and more likely to imitate behaviors which are rewarded. Thus factors such as thinking and reason come in to force in determining the path of learning process. However, environment remarkably influences these aspects of learning as well. Home environment: Parents & Family It is well recognized that home background effects learning process by exercising a multidimensional influence on the child. The four major variables that render the home environment educative, non educative or anti-educative are socioeconomic variables, family configuration (structural and educational aspects) as well as achievement levels, parental characteristics and home process variables (www.adi.org). The importance of home environment is underlined by the fact that the initial period of child development with exclusive and later predominant influence of home is the most rapid phase of development. Interventions at this stage are likely to have more impact on learning process compared to similar interventions at later stages. Even at later stages home remains a determining factor with continuous influence on social, nutritional, and emotional aspects of the child, thus affecting the learning process. Media Media in form of television, internet is knocking at the doors of childhood long before the child is introduced to any of his real friends. The animation characters and the advertisement jingles lure and influence them more than any of the peer group. The influence in some aspects is immediate and obvious such as vocabulary building and introduction to violence. Certain aspects may be gradual such as learning the technology and making children inquisitive as well as better informed. The creative use of media for imparting education, offering audio visual aids facilitating the learning process is being explored and exploited for m ainstream as well as special needs children. The optimal use of these aids is repeatedly stressed in researches. Caution needs to be exercised in the excessive use of media since it might lead to distractions and thus decelerate the learning process. Researchers such as Richard Clarke have argued against the effect of media on learning, declaring it as mere means of communication, thus considering the content as influencing the learning p

Aviation Mechanic Ethical Issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Aviation Mechanic Ethical Issues - Essay Example This is unachievable if employees in the organization do not follow strict ethical standards (Hoppe, 2011). Mechanics in the aviation sector are charged with the responsibility of ensuring that aircrafts and any other important machines in the industry are in the best conditions. This can be attributed to the fact that accidents in the sector are very lethal in most instances because survival is limited when an aircraft crash lands. This implies that all mechanics should follow a good set of ethical standards because it plays a critical role in saving lives. It is worth noting that managers, as well subordinate staff in the industry should always strive to ensure that all their duties are performed diligently. Performance of duties should be based on someone’s willingness to deliver to his or her potential at any given time. It is the responsibility of the management to ensure that all workers are playing their role because this goes a long way in saving lives and increasing the performance of an organization. An organization that records a high number of accidents would definitely lose customers because of loss of faith in the organization (Oderman, 2004). On the other hand, organization with a high reputation of ensuring customer safety, would gain in the market because customers need the best services in the market. The increasing competition between organizations in the world means that an organization that aspires to have a competitive edge must strive to deliver to customers’ expectations. In addition, one ought to understand that the performance of each employee determines the overall performance of an organization because a rope is as a strong as its weakest link. Although some organizations might ignore the importance of ensuring that its mechanical sector is performing to its potential, it has to be noted that, this is the bottom line for an aviation organization’s success

Leafblad Consulting Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Leafblad Consulting - Assignment Example The final organizational profile is expected to include history, overview, and summary of goals and strategic planning. After approval of the position description and organizational profile by TCHFH, Leafblad Consulting starts outreach phase for their approach whose ultimate goal is to develop a robust slate of the candidates for Vice Presidency for TCHFH. Their outreach process comprises announcement, research, candidate contact, initial interviews, and candidate presentation. It takes Leafblad Consulting 3 to 4 weeks for the decision-making and its format includes interviews of the search committee, selection, offer presentation, and reference checking. Full circle is brought to the process by the amplification period that takes from 1 to 2 weeks to complete. Leafblad Consulting has a very effective system of communication which helps in reaching the desired goals. Although the firm has not been around for long, yet it has managed to have a long-term contract to provide the Bush Fo undation with recruitment and executive search services. The firm has created BePollen Lars, thus introducing the Pollen community for developing a resource that shares opportunities and stories of the latest happenings across different industries and sectors. This issue goes further behind bushCONNECT, the event organized on May 12 that was powered by the Bush Foundation to develop collaboration among different leaders’ network. The search process employed by Recruiting Strategies, LLC for every client is very refined. They have right framework and policies to ensure that they recruit the right people and customize the employees’ talent to optimize their tendency to address the client’s needs. The company promises a high-energy, strategic, and results-oriented approach to the search of organizational executives. The company’s experience of recruiting and sourcing exceeds 25 years.

Relationship between Parents & Children Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Relationship between Parents & Children - Essay Example So either the parents are successful or unsuccessful in their lives they put their children through all kinds of pressure and claim that it is for the betterment of the child’s life. A story reflecting the parental pressure on children is â€Å"The Rocking-Horse Winner† by Lawrence, in which the author emphasis that parents should live within their means and should always pay attention to their children without putting implied or un-implied pressure on them. The boy in the story starts betting on horses in order to win money and make his mother happy but in the end dies after winning eighty thousand pounds on a horse. The mother now has all the money she had ever wanted but a son who is no more, the last words of the story say â€Å"My God, Hester, you're eighty-thousand to the good, and a poor devil of a son to the bad.† (Lawrence) The depressing but well constructed story tells all parents to cherish children as their most prized possession carefully nurturing them and avoiding stressful gestures in order to capture the essence and love of a parent-child relationship.   The problem arises when these interests of parents clash with the interests, desires, needs and more importantly aptitude of the children. Most of the parents would go to greater lengths in making their child a hero and in doing so would ignore the fact that the child is not a material possession, he is alive and born with freewill and a heart and mind of his own. The resultant is a resilient child who feels negativity in his life and in all his relations.

Politics in the English Language Essay Example for Free

Politics in the English Language Essay Miscommunication is often the result of modern prose which is most commonly used despite its vagueness because of its simplicity. According to George Orwell’s â€Å"Politics in the English Language,† these habits must be eliminated in order to think clearly, if not, language will continue to be used in corrupt ways by politicians. With poor language skills come poor thinking skills, making it easier for people to be manipulated by warped language. Ted Hughes â€Å"Words and Experience† expresses that words are inadequate and that it is very difficult to capture experience properly. The way in which Hughes and Orwell appeal to the problem of miscommunication are different; Orwell is critical while Hughes is sympathetic. In the paper â€Å"Politics in the English Language,† George Orwell appeals to logos to prove that the misuse of language is corruptly used by politicians for selfish purposes. Thought corrupts language and politicians manipulate language for their own selfish purposes. Words such as fascism and democracy are among those words due to their lack of a concrete meaning. Democracy is often associated with a positive meaning whereas fascism is associated with a negative meaning. As a result dishonest politicians use their own interpretation to twist the meaning of what they are trying to communicate. They have defended events such as the Russian purges and deportations, the British rule in India and the atomic bombing in Japan by using language consisting of â€Å"euphemisms, questionable begging and sheer cloudy vagueness† (Orwell 699). This language covers up all the details of the events and is a prime example of how thought corrupts language. Language is warped because of the way it is used to lie and manipulate people. Politicians use vague language to hide questionable acts which leads to poor language skills. Orwell states that â€Å"the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts† (Orwell 691). He believes that poor language skills lead to poor thinking skills which are detrimental to society beca use people often accept the words of authority figures without thinking; they are not conscience of the meaning of the words being used. These bad language habits that Orwell indentifies are dying metaphors, pretentious diction and meaningless words; all of which are unnecessary and increase vagueness. This form of modern prose is easier therefore it is used commonly resulting in poor thinking skills. â€Å"The whole tendency of modern prose is away from concreteness† and  Ã¢â‚¬Å"consists in gumming together long strips of words which have already been set in order by someone else† (Orwell 697). Orwell suggests that the problem is cyclical; vague language leads to the inability to think for oneself and the inability to think leads to miscommunication. Orwell uses logos to identify the problem and treats it with a critical tone however, believes that it can be fixed â€Å"if one is willing to take the necessary trouble† (Orwell 691). Ted Hughes and George Orwell share similar views on the misuse of language however Hughes uses different points to convey the message in his essay â€Å"Words and Ex perience.† Hughes states that words are tools and that it is difficult to choose the correct words to capture experiences. He uses the metaphor â€Å"A word is its own little solar system of meanings† (Hughes 120) because there is a vast amount of words to choose from and the process is often overcomplicated. Too much time spent thinking of the correct words to use causes people to miss the experience all together. Finding the right word requires a fine balance therefore words should not be used casually. Without this balance, words tend to inhibit the simplest descriptions such as â€Å"the infinite depth of crowiness in the crow’s flight† (Hughes 122). In this case, all words can be used for are indicators and general directives. Swiss psycho-analyst Jung believes that people know how to use words properly but have to quiet down to get what is inside their conscience. Although Hughes writes in a hopeful tone he believes that words are inadequate in describing experience. If and when a balance is found and words match experience, that is poetry. His view and solution are effectively communicated in using a sympathetic tone. George Orwell and Ted Hughes both attack the problem of the misuse of language effectively. With similar goals, both are equally able to convey the same points while appealing to different aspects and emotions. George Orwell’s â€Å"Politics in the English Language,† appeals to logos while criticizing the way unclear language is used corruptly by politicians. He adequately shows how people are easily manipulated by warped language because poor language skills lead poor thinking skills. Ted Hughes appeals to logos by using a sympathetic tone to convey the message that words are inadequate and it is very difficult to capture experience in his essay â€Å"Words and Experience.† The problem of miscommunication found in modern  prose is the result of vagueness and must be fixed. This is difficult because of the bad habits formed and its simplicity, however it can be fixed if one takes the initiative.

The Resource Based View Analysis

The Resource Based View Analysis This report reviews empirical studies of the resource-based view (RBV) and examines the benefits and limitations of RBV as the best strategy route in the developing a firms strategy. By having a clear and focused strategic intent, it mobilises an organisation towards achieving the desire position. Through analysing its internal and external environment using the resource based view and Porters industry analysis respectively, firm would be able to achieve sustainable competitive advantage. The key to a resource based view is through an understanding the relationships between resources, capabilities, competitive advantage, and economic rent. The RBV identified characteristics of advantage-creating resources such as value, rarity, imitability and Organisation (Clulow et al, 2007; Barney, 1991). In contrast, porters industry analysis focuses on lower cost and product differentiation in achieving sustainable competitive advantage. Despite the conflicting issues, the resource based view has examined issues and new directions that will help to clarify the value and boundaries of the RBV by integrating with Porters industry analysis. Porters framework and the RBV of the firm basically perceived the primary role of strategy as achieving a unique competitive advantage (Hax A. C. and Wilde II D. L., 2003). Thus, both frameworks can complement each other as they emphasise in different dimensions of strategy (Hax A. C. and Wilde II D. L., 2003). (200 Words) Introduction The resource based view of the firm (RBV) is one of the contemporary strategic management concepts to develop a firms strategy. The primary objective of this report is to accept or reject the contention that resource-based view analysis (RBV) has a strong relationship with firms performance in achieving a sustainable competitive advantage. This report reviews the literature on competitive advantage and firm performance. It is divided into five main components. The first section summarizes the literature on competitive advantage from two viewpoints, the Resource Based View (RBV) and Porters Industry Analysis (IA). The second section discusses on the strengths of the RBV in reviews with the literature on strategic intent, threshold resources, capabilities, competitive advantage, core competencies, sustainable competitive advantage and VRIO. The third section illustrates Porters IA in reviews with cost, differentiation, and market focus. The fourth section deliberates the criticisms of the RBV and illustrates how researchers have or have not overcome some of these boundaries. The fifth section is a review of an integration of the RBV and Porters IA in the proposed model of core competencies, competitive advantage and firm performance (Chabert J. M., 1998) (185 Words) The Resource Based View of the Firm Thompson et Al (2010) point out that RBVÂ  [1]Â  uses a companys VRIOÂ  [2]Â  strengths and competitive capabilities to deliver value to customers in way that rivals find it difficult to match. The RBV emphasises the internal capabilities of the organisation in formulating strategy to achieve a SCAÂ  [3]Â  in its markets and industries (Henry, 2008). It holds that firms can earn sustainable abnormal returns if and only they have superior resources and those resources are protected by some form of isolating mechanism preventing their diffusion throughout industry (Value Based Management.net, 2011). The Resourced Based View Assumptions The RBV of firms is based on two main assumptions involved resource diversity and resource immobility (Barney, 1991; Mata et al, 1995). According to Mata et al. (1995), resource diversity concerns whether different firms possess bundles of different resources and capabilities; while resource immobility refers to a resource is difficult to obtain by competitors because it is inelastic in supply or costly. These two assumptions can be used to determine whether an organisation is able to create a SCA by providing a framework for determining whether a process or technology provides a real advantage over the marketplace (Brown, 2007). Thus, the RBV tends to focus on the types of resources and the characteristics of these resources that make them strategically important, the dynamic capability perspective which focuses on how these resources need to change over time to maintain their market relevance (Powell, 2007). The RBV as the best strategy route in developing a firms strategy Today managers are moving manufacturing offshore to lower costs of labour, rationalising product lines to capture global scale economies, instituting quality circles and just in time production, and adopting Japanese human resource practices. It was believed that the application of concepts like strategic fit (between resources and opportunities), generic strategies (low cost, differentiation and market focus) and the strategy hierarchy (goals, strategies, and tactics) have often aided the process of CAÂ  [4]Â  (Hamel and Prahalad 1989; Andrews, 1971). Most companies have approached competitor analysis that focuses on the existing resources like human, technical and financial of present competitors. Whereas, the only threat those companies aware are those with the resources to erode margins and market share in the future. There are few Japanese companies possessed RBV, manufacturing volume or technical competence of U.S. and European leaders. For instance, Canons first halting step s in reprographics business looked pitifully small compared with the $4 billion Xerox powerhouse (Hamel and Prahalad 1989). Strategic Intent Strategic intent envisions a desired leadership position and establishes the criterion the organisation will use to chart its progress where Komatsu set out to encircle Caterpillar. The concept emphasises an active management process that involved focusing the organisations attention on the essence of winning, motivating people by communicating the value of the target, leaving rooms for individual and team contributions, sustaining enthusiasms by providing new operational definitions as circumstances change and using intent consistently to guide resource allocations (Hamel and Prahalad, 1989). Strategic intent captures the essence of winning. For example, the Apollo program where landing a man on the moon ahead of the Soviets was as competitively focused as Komatsus drive against Caterpillar. It is stable over time, in order to challenge global leadership; one of the most critical tasks is to lengthen the organisations attention span. It provides consistency to short term action, which leaving a room for reinterpretation as new opportunities emerge (Hamel and Prahalad, 1989). A firm is said to have a CA when the firm can produce more economically and higher customer satisfaction, and thus enjoy superior performance relative to its competitors (Barney, 1991; Peteraf, 1993). Whereas, Porter (1985) defined CA as the ability to earn returns on investment consistently above the average for the industry by focusing on the companys external competitive environment and how they position themselves against that structure (Halawi L. A., Aronson J. E, and McCarthy R. V., 2005). In contrast, the RBV of strategy points not to industry structure but to the unique cluster of RCÂ  [5]Â  that each organisation possesses (Henry, 2008; Collis and Montgomery 1995; Stalk et al, 1992). Firms Outperform and Maintain Competitive Advantage The Benefits of RBV RBV is best applied for the kind of assessment of a firms existing resource portfolio discussed by Barney (2001) or when exploiting the firms stock of resources to move into new product markets, as in the tradition of Penrose (1959) (Sheehan and Foss, 2007). There are two fundamental reasons for making the RC of the firm the foundation for its strategy. First, it provides the basic direction for a firms strategy and second, they are the primary source of profit for the firm. The RBV perceives the value derived from management skills, information capabilities, and administrative processes can also be regarded as scarce factors able to generate economic rents (Sheehan and Foss, 2007). The concept of a dynamic capability was developed to explain why some firms have been able to outperform their competitors over long periods of time and despite significant changes in the marketplace (Teece et al, 1997). Firms as bundle of Resources Threshold resources are defined as the unique combination of assets and capabilities within a firm that enable firms to develop and implement strategies to meet customers minimum requirements and to improve its overall performance (Scholes J. G., and Whittington, R., 2008). It can be classified as either tangible or intangible resources. Tangible resources refer to the physical assets that a firm possesses and can be characterised as physical resources. In order to add value, these physical resources must be capable to respond to marketplace changes. Intangible resources comprise of human and organisational capitals. It may be embedded in routines and practices that have developed over time within the organisation (Henry, 2008). It includes knowledge based economy, the tacit knowledge and specialist skills of many employees which are difficult for competitors to imitate (Henry, 2008). Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) differentiate between knowledge that can be seen as tacit and explicit. An explicit knowledge or knowing about is shown through communication that can be readily transferred therefore it requires some form of protection like copyright. Whereas, tacit knowledge or know how cannot be codified and it is revealed through its application and acquired through practices such as beliefs and perspectives (Henry, 2008). RBV and Organisational learning The RBV stresses the significance of developing and enhancing those resources that are distinctive, in particular, distinctive capabilities (Olavarrieta and Ellinger, 1997). Ten3 Business e-Coach (2001) defined capabilities as the capacity for a set of resources to interactively perform a business process. Capabilities, are the type of resources that is a source to SCA because they are based on organisational routines and processes, which are socially complex, knowledge-based (explicit and tacit) and difficult to observe and imitate. A firm is able to possess dynamic and operational capabilities, where dynamic capabilities are defined as those processes that allowed the firm to change its resource base in some ways to meet the differences in strategic and competitive challenges (Zubac et al, 2010; Helfat et al, 2007). The concept of a dynamic capability was developed to explain why some firms have been able to outperform their competitors over long periods of time and despite significant changes in the marketplace (Teece et al, 1997). It is specific and identifiable processes involved conceptualisation, product development, strategic decision making and alliancing (Eisenhardt and Martin, 2000, p. 1105). Conversely, operational capability is the firms capacity to combine, assemble and deploy the firms assets using pre-determined activities, routines, processes and the skills of its employees to make products and services that are a source of potential profits to the firm available to its customers (Spanos and Lioukas, 2001). However a firm will usually focus on certain capabilities consistent with its strategy such as if a firm is pursuing a differentiation strategy, they would focus on new product development, whereas a firm which adopting low cost strategy would focus on improving manufacturing process efficiency (Henry, 2008). Capabilities, however, are not built in short term basis, they are dependent on a firms personnel, its knowledge and understanding of the marketplace and customers requirements and operations (Olavarrieta and Ellinger, 1997). The Competitive Advantage of RBV Competitive advantages and disadvantages in resources are equivalent to strengths and weaknesses respectively, which stimulate cost and differentiation advantages or disadvantages in competitive product markets (Valentin K. E., 2001). An understanding of industry structure guides managers toward productive possibilities for strategic action, which may include positioning the company to be better cope with the current competitive forces, anticipating and exploiting shifts in the forces, and shaping the balance of forces to create a new industry structure that is more favourable to the company (Porter, 2008). The CA gained by these key intangible assets and capabilities is then reflected in superior performance of the firm in financial terms such as higher profits, increased sales or market share (Clulow et al, 2007; Hunt and Morgan, 1995; Collis and Montgomery, 1995; Fahy, 2002; Wilcox-King and Zeithaml, 2001). The Competencies of an Organisations Henry (2008) evaluated competency as the internal capabilities that firms require in order to be able to compete in the marketplace. In addition, Zubac et al (2010) defined CCÂ  [6]Â  as the collective learning of individual members within the firm and their ability to work across organisational boundaries. Prahalad and Hamel (1990, p. 82) stated that: The skills that together constitute core competence must coalesce around individuals whose efforts are not so narrowly focused that they cannot recognise the opportunities for blending their functional expertise with those of others in new and interesting ways. Thus, a CC or strategic capability can be thought as a collection of features that a firm possesses which enable them to achieve CA. Honda and BMW are examples of the organisations that have achieved CC in a way they configure their value chain respectively (Henry, 2008). RBV and Sources of Sustainable Competitive Advantage (SCA) Barney (1991) suggested that there can be heterogeneity or firm-level differences among firms that allow some of them to SCA. Ten3 Business e-Coach (2001) describes SCA as the continued benefit when an organisation is implementing a value-creating strategy that is not being implemented by current or potential competitors and when these competitors are unable to imitate the benefits of this strategy. Therefore, the RBV emphasises strategic choice, changing the management of the firm with the important task of identifying, developing and deploying key resources to maximise returns (Powell, 2007). Bharadwaj et al. propose a framework of SCA for a firm is derived from the assets and capabilities of the firm. The extent of the service firms SCA is basically determined by the degree of imitability inherent in the firms resources. Kerin et al (1992) presented an integrative framework of the literature on first mover advantage, suggesting that the realisation of SCA, through market pioneering, is contingent on the resources that a firm possesses (Olavarrieta and Ellinger, 1997). Strategic resources and Superior performances As a source of CA, RC must have four attributes which is VRIO in order to outperform others. A resource must be valuable as it enables the firm to conceive or implement strategies that improve its efficiency and effectiveness through lower costs and incline of revenue (Ecofine, 2010). Substitutability refers that there must be no strategically equivalent valuable resources that can be exploited to implement the same strategies (12manage, 2008). For instance, Wal-Mart sells most of the same merchandise as its major competitors, but the effectiveness and innovation of its logistics system ensures that it is the market leader in its field. Wal-Marts valuable and imitability point-of-purchase inventory control systems and cross-docking distribution plants have resulted in competitive advantage relative to its major US competitor, K-Mart (Olavarrieta and Ellinger, 1997; Barney, 1995). Porters Framework Porters Industry Analysis There are three sources that is irreproducible such as market structure that limits entry, a companys history which by definition will require time to replicate and tacitness in relationships refers to the routines and behaviours which cannot be imitate since the organisations themselves are unsure how they work (Henry, A., 2008). Porters mentioned that there are only two generic studies to compete either through low cost or product differentiation that lead to superior performance (Hax A. C. and Wilde II D. L., 2003). To assist managers in understanding, improving, and implementing a low cost or differentiation strategy, Porter (1985) developed the value chain framework; it is a generic activity template that is used to decompose the firm into the individual activities it undertakes to create value for the customer (Sheehan and Foss, 2007). Economies of Scale Cost leadership is achieved through the aggressive pursuit of economies of scale, product and process simplification, and significant product market share that allows companies to exploit experience and learning effects (Hax A. C. and Wilde II D. L., 2003). Dell being one of the organisation are protected by scale economies in their direct-sales method, efficient lean-manufacturing approach, expertise in logistics and supply-chain management. Hence, these capabilities provide it with CA and which its competitive rivals have found difficult to imitate (Henry, 2008). Differentiation and Core Competencies A differentiation demand for creating a product that customer perceives as highly valuable and unique (Hax A. C. and Wilde II D. L., 2003). The first-mover advantage refers to firms which benefit from the learning and experience they acquire as a result of being first in the marketplace like Toyota has achieved CC in the production of petrol-and-electric hybrid cars (Henry, 2008). Hence, a CC should provide access to a wide variety of markets, make significant contribution to perceived customer benefits of the end products and difficult to imitate. Honda is one of the organisations that focuses on the technical excellence of 4-cycle engines, have enabled it to leverage its CC to compete in markets from motorcycles to automobiles to a broad range of gasoline-engine products (Grant, M. R., 2001). Market focus Strategy can be viewed as building defences against the competitive forces or finding a position in the industry where forces are weakest. For instance, Paccar, a firm with heavy-truck market, has chosen to focus on one group of customers that is owner-operators. They have customised every single part of the value chain to work well with the forces in its segment. Thus, Paccar has earned a long-run return on equity above 20 % (Porter, 2008). Criticisms RBV Implications The RBV of the firm is a contemporary theory that provides insights on both strategic and organizational issues. An often-recurring critique on the RBV is that its core logic contains circular reasoning in the specification of the relationship between rents and resources (Truijens, 2003). Foss (2000) argued that the VRIO attributes in the RBV that valuable and rare resources can be sources of SCA is tautological. RBV has little attention on the important issues of how resources can develop and change over time. Likewise, the dynamic role played by individuals within organisations is often assumed to be self-evident and therefore seldom addressed (Henry, 2008). Another critique is that it is not sufficient clear in the RBV on how resources contribute to firm-level value creation and that operationalisation is therefore difficult (Sheehan and Foss, 2007; Priem and Butler, 2001) The RBV emphasises on the role of human capital in the creation of CA, which at the same time caused issues for accountants in terms of total business and intangible asset valuation (Toms, 2010). Accountants similarly are concerned with controls which prevent misappropriation of resources that ultimately are shareholders property. Thus, a theory of value also needs to be one of accountability (Toms, 2010). Conclusion Activity drivers and resources share many similarities, both resources and drivers influence a firms cost and differentiation position, and both need managerial involvement in the sense that drivers must be made controllable, while resources must be organized (Sheehan and Foss, 2007). Although these frameworks have often been presented as conflicting views; they can contribute greatly to the development of a strong business strategy. Since they emphasised different dimensions of strategy, they can complement each other. By integrating these frameworks, it enables activity-based view solves implementation issues that are unresolved when using the RBV (Sheehan and Foss, 2007; Barney and Arikan, 2001). It enhances many of the individual weaknesses of the two views. The activity-based view is weak in its assumptions about factor markets, which would be addressed by the RBV (Sheehan and Foss, 2007; Teng and Cummings, 2002). Thus, Porters industry analysis remains crucial and the choice should not be seen as one of either but rather one of complementarity. (2371 Words)

Techniques for Donor Nephrectomy Analysis

Techniques for Donor Nephrectomy Analysis Laparoscopic donor nephrectomy versus robotic assisted laparoscopic donor nephrectomy: A prospective randomised comparative study Introduction: Donor nephrectomy is unique surgery which is done on person who is not a patient and come forward for purely altruistic reasons. So the margin of error in donor nephrectomy is nil and hence the stress in donor surgeon is quite high. At the same time all attempts should be done to minimize the donor morbidity to minimum. With the same intension in 1995, Ratner reported first laparoscopic living donor nephrectomy (LDN) (1) and later gradually the laparoscopic approach has become almost the standard of care for living donor nephrectomy. Randomised controlled trials (RCT) comparing the laparoscopic vs. open donor nephrectomy suggested that laparoscopic approach was associated lesser postoperative analgesic requirement and lesser hospital stay and faster returned to work compared to open approach without affecting immediate graft outcome although there was significantly increased warm ischemia time and total operative time with LDN group (2,3). So LDN was associated with dec rease in the disincentives associated with voluntary donor nephrectomy. Further course of time saw further refinement in the techniques of LDN and towards further reducing the morbidity associated with donor nephrectomy. These modifications were introduction of laparo- endoscopic single site surgery(LESS) (4), retroperitoneoscopic donor nephrectomy, robotic assisted laparoscopic donor nephrectomy (RDN) (5) and transvaginal laparoscopic donor nephrectomy (6). In 2002 Horgan first reported the RDN. The goal of this study was to compare the outcomes of LDN and RDN. Materials and methods: The study was started after approval from institutional review board. Study enrollment time was from March 2014 to February 2015.Primary end point was the postoperative visual analogue pain scores of the donors. Secondary end points were donor’s postoperative analgesic requirement, haemoglobin drop, hospital stay ,lost arterial and venous length, total operative time(TOT) , retrieval time (RT) , warm ischemia time ( WIT),. Recipient related secondary end points were graft function at serial follow up. Surgeon difficulty scores for different steps of surgery were also analyzed. Total of 45 donors were to be enrolled into the study with enrollment ratio of 1:2 for Robotic: Laparoscopy arm for establishing mean pain score difference of 1 with standard deviation of 1 to reject the null hypothesis that the robotic and laparoscopic pain score means are equal with probability (Power) of 0.871 and the type 1 error ( ÃŽ ±) of 0.05.The sample size was calculated w ith power and sample size program version 3.0.7. After written informed valid consent for inclusion in study, 45 live related voluntary kidney donor who were completely evaluated and planned for right (N=27) or left donor nephrectomy (N=18) were randomised into robotic (Da Vinci Si TM-Intuitive surgical ® ) or laparoscopic approach for donor nephrectomy with chit method.(Figure 1). Exclusion criteria were patient unwilling for inclusion in study, preemptive transplantation, body mass index (BMI)> 35kg/ square meter, multiple renal artery or veins on donor side or epsilateral adrenal adenoma. Parameters noted in all donors preoperatively were, age, gender, comorbidities, previous surgeries GFR (Cockroft-Gault), serum creatinine BMI, length of renal artery and vein ( up to level of bifurcation) on CT angiogram. RDN was done by two surgeons with expertise in robotic surgery.LDN was done by multiple surgeons (including both the surgeons performing RDN) with expertise in LDN. Bed side surgeons in RDN were the same surgeons who were performing LDN. The operative room team in both the group was same. In Right LDN, access was achieved from three 12 mm ports for camera and working and two 5 mm ports for lifting ureterogonadal packet and liver retraction. In 9 cases additional 12 mm port was placed from Pfanensteil retrieval wound for insertion of vascular stapler. In Left LDN, two 12 mm ports for camera and working and two 5 mm ports for working and lifting ureterogonadal packet were used. Three left LDN could be managed without port for lifting of ureterogonadal packet. In Left RDN, three 8mm robotic working ports and two 12mm ports ,one for robotic camera and another was for bed side surgeon working port were used. In Right RDN in addition to above ports one more 12 mm port in Pfanensteil retrieval wound for stapler insertion was used in 7 cases and one 5 mm port for liver retraction was used in all cases. The steps for the surgery were similar in LDN as well as RDN. The difficulty scores (visual analogue score 0-10; 0 being easiest and 10 being most difficult ) of donor surgeon were noted on for bowel reflection, lifting up the ureterogonadal packet, hilar dissection, upper pole dissection, clipping the ureterogonadal packet, clipping renal artery and vein, cutting renal artery and vein and retrieval of graft in laparoscopy group. The console surgeon difficulty scores were noted for bowel reflection, lifting up the ureterogonadal packet, hilar dissection, and upper pole dissection, cutting renal artery and vein in robotic cases. Bed side surgeon difficulty scores were noted for tasks done by him like clipping ureterogonadal packet, clipping of renal artery and vein and retrieval in robotic cases. A 5-7cm Pfanensteil incision is placed and deepened to the level of parital peritoneum for graft retrieval. In 2 right RDN kidney was flipped for getting longer renal artery stump. Mannitol was given intravenous before cutting ureterogonadal packets. After cutting the ureter brisk urine output was observed from cut ureter before clipping of hilar vessles. After cutting renal vein, graft was freed of lateral attachments and kept free in peritoneal cavity. After incising this parital peritoneum in Pfanensteil incision, graft is retrieved in longitudinal axis by hand introduced into peritoneum by donor surgeon in LDN and patient side surgeon in RDN. During retrieval undocking of fourth arm of robot was necessary in most of the cases with RDN. Intraoperatively noted parameters in robotic as well as laparoscopic cases were number of ports, retrieval time, warm ischemia time total operative time, length of artery and vein (Up to level of bifurcation) on bench, intraoperative complications. Retrieval time was considered from clipping of artery up to the retrieval from donor. Warm ischemia time was considered from clipping of artery up to reperfusion of kidney with perfusion fluid till the time when efflux from renal vein is clear. Docking time was noted in robotic cases. Post operative visual analogue pain scores (VAS) were noted in donor at 6 hours, 24 hours and 48 hours. Donors were discharged when they were allowed full oral diet, passed motions, ambulant and comfortable. Other donor parameters noted postoperatively were analgesic requirement in milligrams of tramadol, complication grades by Clavien –Dindo complication scale, hospital stay, haemoglobin drop, and serum creatinine at 1 month follow up. Recipient parameters noted were e GFR (Cockcroft-Gault) at 7 days, 1month, 3 month, 6 months and 9 months, graft complications, graft loss. Statistical analysis was done with Statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 15.0. Analysis was done for comparing RDN vs. LDN. Subgroup analysis was done to compare Right RDN vs. Right LDN and Left RDN vs. Left LDN. The Chi-square test and Student’s t-test was used for categorical and continuous variables respectively. Results: The demographic parameters in donors are as shown in table 1.Demographic parameters in right and left subgroup are shown in table 2 and 3 respectively. Both the RDN and LDN groups as well as right and left donor subgroups were similar in age, gender, BMI, preoperative renal function, previous surgeries and comorbidities and preoperative artery and vein lengths. All 15 RDN were completed without conversion to LDN or open donor nephrectomy. All 30 LDN were completed without conversion to open donor nephrectomy. There were no intraoperative complications in any of RDN or LDN. In all the RND and LDN the ureter was cut at pelvic brim level. All the recipients (N=45) in both the groups had good urine output on table after vascular anastomosis. 2 surgeons (one on console and one on patient side) were necessary in RDN compared to single donor surgeon in LDN. The difficulty score on VAS scale 0-10 for donor surgeon in LDN and console surgeon and patient side surgeon in RND is shown in table 4 for right side and table 5 for left side. The VAS score of patient side surgeon in RDN was higher in graft retrieval compared to donor surgeon in LDN in both right and left subgroup. In right subgroup, the VAS scores of RDN surgeons were less than LDN surgeon except in step of upper pole dissection and adrenal sparing which have comparable VAS scores. In left subgroup, the VAS scores of RDN surgeon and LDN surgeon are similar other than step of renal artery and vein cutting which was easier in RDN group. The analysis of intraoperative and postoperative parameters as well as recipient and graft outcomes is shown in table 6.The subgroup analysis in right and left group is shown in table 7 and 8 respectively. Donor VAS pain score at 6 hours, 24 hours and 48 hours, analgesic requirement, hospital stay was less in RDN group compared to LDN group. There was no significant difference in donor haemoglobin drop, donor complications, donor serum creatinine at 1 month, recipient eGFR at 7 days, 1month, 3 months, 6 months and 9 months or graft complications between RDN and LDN group. More ports were necessary in RDN in either of the subgroups. The total operative time was not significantly different in RDN and LDN group as well as in right and left subgroup. However the retrieval time was higher in RDN group overall as well as in both right and left subgroup. The warm ischemia time is higher in RDN group overall as well as in left subgroup. However it is not significantly different in right subgroup. There was no difference in lost length of vein during clipping in RND or LDN in both subgroups. However in right RDN longer artery length could be preserved compared to right LDN. This was not found in left subgroup. Discussion: More important than introduction of any new technology is safety associated with the technique. This is more so in transplant as there are outcomes in two persons are at stake. As found in our study the RDN is safe technique. It is associated with similar immediate and early postoperative outcomes in donors as well as corresponding recipient’s graft function. Previous literature also suggest that RDN is safe(5,8,9). Study comparing robotic versus laparoscopy suggest that robotic approach is associated with less pain than laparoscopic approach (10). The possible reason for less pain in robotic surgery is robotic arms which are pivoted around port site are moved at fixed remote centre. So there is less leverage around the port site and lesser pressure at port sites which leads to lesser trauma to abdominal wall tissues around the port. Our study suggested that RDN is associated with lesser pain score and lesser analgesic requirement compared to LDN. This also transforms into earlier recovery and discharge from the hospital. Although the voluntary kidney donors donate with altruistic approach, any donor will prefer approach which further reduces the morbidity associated with donor surgery. It is for this reason that live donor nephrectomy rates increase after advent of LDN compared to open donor nephrectomy (11, 12).RDN may further reduce morbidity associated with donor nephrectomy. Most of the transplant centres prefer left sided graft kidney over right in view of small right vein length and need for retrocaval dissection or flipping of kidney on right side to achieve good graft artery length (13, 14) which may be technically more challenging.Studies also propose that the robotic approach with its 3 Dimentional vision,7 degrees of freedom,higher magnification and enhanced dexterity compared to standard laparoscopic approach facilitate the renal hilar dissection(15). In our study we found that the VAS of donor surgeon for right hilar dissection was lesser in RDN than LDN. Right kidney was flipped in two RDN. The preserved renal artery length was more in right RDN than right LDN. The technical ease was felt in right RDN compared to right LDN in all steps other than upper pole dissection and retrieval. However it is worth noting that this technical ease did not reach level of significance in any steps of left RDN vs. LDN except cutting of renal artery and vein. Th e lost artery or vein length was not different in left RDN and LDN. This suggest that robotic approach may provide some technical advantage compared to laparoscopic on right side but not so significantly on left side.At the time of writing this manuscript and during the conduct of this study instruments like robotic vascular stapler are not available. Availability of such instruments will further reduce the role of patient side surgeon and may influence the technical ease of this surgery. It may also reduce the steep learning curve associated with LDN(9). The total operative time was not different in RDN vs. LDN. However the warm ischemia time was significantly more in Left RDN group than LDN (p=0.01, power of test for this parameter=87.8%) which is definitely a matter of concern. The retrieval time was more in RDN in both subgroups. The difference in WIT did not reach level of significance on right side.Possible cause for this increased WIT and RT is need to undock the fourth arm during retrieval. This is also a cause for increased patient side surgeon VAS during retrieval in RDN. The increase in WIT does not correlate with recipient graft function in limited range of time (16,17).In our study as well the recipient graft related complications or e GFR was not different between RDN and LDN group at 7 days,1 month ,3 month,6 month,9 month follow up . We acknowledge the limitation of our study that although it is well powered for its primary end point of post operative visual analogue pain scores of donor, it is less powered for few of the secondary end points. The longest recipient graft follow up is 1 year in our study and we don’t have any longer follow up. Last but not least ,our study does not focus on the economic aspects of comparison between RDN and LDN.The RDN increased the cost of surgery for donor nephrectomy(18).It remains to be determined if the benefits of RDN in reducing donor morbidity and technical ease associated with it out weight the cost implications associated with it. Conclusion: RDN is safe procedure and is associated with better postoperative pain scores, analgesic requirement as well as lesser hospital stay compared to LDN. Robotic approach in right donor nephrectomy is associated with more technical ease to console surgeon compared to laparoscopic donor surgeon in most of the steps of surgery and facilitates preservation of longer length of right renal artery. However there is no significant technical ease associated with left RDN compared to left LDN. Left RDN is associated with longer WIT than LDN however this does not reflect adversely into early graft function from 7 days up to 9 months.

Becoming A Professional Chef Essay example -- Career Essays

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The chefs who have made the greatest impression know that their successes depend upon several factors, some of which are inherent; some which are diligently cultivated. Becoming a professional chef not only requires a thorough understanding in food preparation, but many other important points as well. Auguste Escoffier, the originator of modern foodservice wrote; "No theories, no formulae, no recipe, no matter how well written, can take the place of experience." (1)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The formal educational process must begin with the choice of institution, in the United States, the Culinary Institute of America, New York is the leader in traditional culinary cuisine preparation. The curriculum is taught on the Escoffier ideal. The California culinary Academy, San Francisco, also offers culinary education, but along with the New England culinary Institute, Montpelier, Vt, offer an education for occupational demand and placement. In order to gain a solid understanding in basic and advanced culinary techniques, any aspiring chef will find formal training at an accredited school an excellent beginning.An apprenticeship and or on-the-job training can be useful for some individuals in the place of formal education, and is a a necessary follow-up for all chefs in training. Learning should be an ongoing process, there is no substitute for experience;only with practice will classroom teory become fully developed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The purpose behind the education is learning basic food preparation, learning the styles of knife cuts and food presentation. Most importantly of all food preparation is sanitation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The importance of sanitation cannot be over emphasized. In a business based upon service and hospitality, reputation and indeed, livelihoods are dependent upon the customers good will.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Food-borne illnesses fall into two categories, intoxicant and infections. An understanding of the causes and preventions will limit any contaminations. The food preparation process emcompresses the sanitation process from the beginning, using properly sterile utincels, food storage, etc.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being a professional chef like any profession has a great many sides. The career opportunities for a chef that come to mind are that, a chef, a cook. The Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor review,November, 1995. By the year 2000, there will be an estimated 16-38% increase for chefs. T... ...ublic, organizing the staff to promote customer relations. The chef must also operate the kitchen, after all that is his profession. The chef must develop the needs and specifications of the kitchen, choose purveyors, organize delivery schedules,make inventory requirements. All the ingredients, no pun intended, will become necessary in a profitable on going operation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When deciding to be a professional chef; the preferred working environment of the individual will dictate how they wish to apply the skill. Being a chef can lead to other occupations as well, some which are not directly related to the foodservice industry. Teaching the skills of a culinarian, newspaper columnist or journalist critic. There are many possibilities to a professional chef outside a kitchen environment, learning by contact with other professionals is what professionalism is all about.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Works cited The California Culinary Academy,WWW.Baychef.com/educational/ index.html. Website. The Wall Street journal,January 2, 1990, Page 1. The Culinary Institute of America,The New Professional Chef. 5th ed.New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,1991 Becoming A Professional Chef Essay example -- Career Essays   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The chefs who have made the greatest impression know that their successes depend upon several factors, some of which are inherent; some which are diligently cultivated. Becoming a professional chef not only requires a thorough understanding in food preparation, but many other important points as well. Auguste Escoffier, the originator of modern foodservice wrote; "No theories, no formulae, no recipe, no matter how well written, can take the place of experience." (1)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The formal educational process must begin with the choice of institution, in the United States, the Culinary Institute of America, New York is the leader in traditional culinary cuisine preparation. The curriculum is taught on the Escoffier ideal. The California culinary Academy, San Francisco, also offers culinary education, but along with the New England culinary Institute, Montpelier, Vt, offer an education for occupational demand and placement. In order to gain a solid understanding in basic and advanced culinary techniques, any aspiring chef will find formal training at an accredited school an excellent beginning.An apprenticeship and or on-the-job training can be useful for some individuals in the place of formal education, and is a a necessary follow-up for all chefs in training. Learning should be an ongoing process, there is no substitute for experience;only with practice will classroom teory become fully developed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The purpose behind the education is learning basic food preparation, learning the styles of knife cuts and food presentation. Most importantly of all food preparation is sanitation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The importance of sanitation cannot be over emphasized. In a business based upon service and hospitality, reputation and indeed, livelihoods are dependent upon the customers good will.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Food-borne illnesses fall into two categories, intoxicant and infections. An understanding of the causes and preventions will limit any contaminations. The food preparation process emcompresses the sanitation process from the beginning, using properly sterile utincels, food storage, etc.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being a professional chef like any profession has a great many sides. The career opportunities for a chef that come to mind are that, a chef, a cook. The Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor review,November, 1995. By the year 2000, there will be an estimated 16-38% increase for chefs. T... ...ublic, organizing the staff to promote customer relations. The chef must also operate the kitchen, after all that is his profession. The chef must develop the needs and specifications of the kitchen, choose purveyors, organize delivery schedules,make inventory requirements. All the ingredients, no pun intended, will become necessary in a profitable on going operation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When deciding to be a professional chef; the preferred working environment of the individual will dictate how they wish to apply the skill. Being a chef can lead to other occupations as well, some which are not directly related to the foodservice industry. Teaching the skills of a culinarian, newspaper columnist or journalist critic. There are many possibilities to a professional chef outside a kitchen environment, learning by contact with other professionals is what professionalism is all about.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Works cited The California Culinary Academy,WWW.Baychef.com/educational/ index.html. Website. The Wall Street journal,January 2, 1990, Page 1. The Culinary Institute of America,The New Professional Chef. 5th ed.New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,1991

Sex Education in Schools Essay -- Teaching Education

Sex Education in Schools Sex education in schools now seems to be more and more of a controversial issue. People are arguing over what the curriculum should be in sex education, if it should be taught in schools or at home by parents and the main point of this paper if sex education is actually doing what it was set out to do. The idea behind this paper is to determine if sex education in schools really does keep down the amount of teens with STD’s or who become pregnant. The definition of sex education according to SIECUS (2002) â€Å"Sexuality education is a lifelong process of acquiring information and forming attitudes, beliefs, and values. It encompasses sexual development, reproductive health, interpersonal relationships, affection, intimacy, body image, and gender roles.† Sex education discusses important aspects of reproduction, sexuality, and just growing up in general in a physical and emotional sense. One would have to wonder though; does sex education actually serve its purpose? Does it enlighten teens enough about sex and the consequences, to the point where you can actually tell the difference between those who are sexually educated and those who are not? According to a study done bye Coyle (1999) sex education no matter where, at home or in school, and no matter the program does indeed help decrease the amount of teens having unsafe sex. Based on information from that same study about 3 million teenagers a year get an STD, and roughly 10% of adolescent females ages 15-19 get pregnant every year unintentionally. In an article from The Alan Guttmacher Institute (1999) there has been a 20% drop in female p regnancies between n 1990 and 1997 and the drop has continued, they have stated that the reason for this i... ...ow that sex education does indeed decrease the amount of teens who become pregnant and contract STD’s. There are a lot of people who choose to ignore statistics which state that they themselves and their children are at risk of getting a disease which would change their lives forever, or ignore the idea that their child could be having sex, and young teens who don’t believe they can get pregnant the first time having sex. Sex education informs and is an important part of a curriculum, just as much as Math and English, because an education is harder to get if you have a baby or if you spend a lot of time in the doctor’s office. Life is by no means over if a disease is contracted or if a baby is born, but it is defiantly life altering and it is by far better to know and be able to protect yourself than it is to be sheltered from what a few people could find profane.

Kucera Clothiers

Proposal The implementation of a Collaborative System was chosen because as a distributed organization with multiple units in different geographical locations, with a semi decentralized decision making structure involving a large degree of autonomy in each organizational unit, collaboration between all these multiple units, collaboration and communication between these multiple units is of utmost importance, according to Munkvold (1998). Also, Stahl (2001) notes that increased collaboration strategies can help increase sales, create opportunities, improve customer service and decrease costs.According to a white paper by Cisco (Enhancing Business with Smarter More Effective Communications, 2006),Communication-caused delay or disruptions are major problems faced by most business. A Sage Research report found that in a survey, 36 percent of respondents said they typically were unable to reach remotely located colleagues on the first attempt, with 52 percent saying that they had to use m ultiple means of contact on a daily basis.Communications complexity affects long-term productivity, financial performance as well as business processes reform. Poor communications affect strategic initiatives such as lean or just-in-time production, supply chain optimization and customer relationship management.The inability to access, communicate and collaborate effectively with primary players causes decision support outcomes to suffer. A Forrster Consulting study found that many workers find it difficult to quickly assemble team members in real time to discuss a critical problem.Complexity of communications causes resources to be underused or misallocated. Under-use and lack of integration of communication tools such as cell phones, pagers, mobile PCs and PDAs   cause investment in developing human talent and enabling technologies to be less effective.A collaboration system, by enabling communication and collaboration between remotely located employees and the company, can addr esses and correct these problems. This project will also help Kucera achieve its mission statement of â€Å"fostering a positive environment that promotes teamwork and co-operation between employees†, and its goal of improving communications and operations between the central corporate location in Chicago and the other satellite offices and stores throughout the world.The benefits of a wireless network to connect offices is also to enable and facilitate better communications, however, it is less practical, more costly and less integrated and structured than a collaboration system. Furthermore it cannot be extended to cover all the multiple organizational units and employees located remotely or in different geographical network. Hence a collaboration system is more feasible and beneficial, especially since it can be accessed by any employee or organizational unit no matter their locations.The implementation of a CRM system to improve service to customers by tracking customer p urchases requires a stable, efficient and reliable communication and collaboration platform to be in place before it can collect, store, analyze and utilize customer data effectively, as described previously. Hence it is not a good choice to implement a CRM system right away.References Munkvold, Bjorn Erik, ‘Implementation of information technology for supporting collaboration in distributed organizations’, 1998, Norwegian University of Science and Technology Cisco White Paper, ‘Enhancing Business with Smarter More Effective Communications’, Cisco, 2006Stahl, Stephanie, ‘Collaboration's Benefits Outweigh Difficulties’, Information Week, Dec 10 2001SummaryThe project of implementing a collaboration system is consistent with Kucera Clothier’s IT strategy as it aids and facilitates Kucera Clothier’s currently existing business operations, as well as its plans for further expansion globally. As Bartel (2002) says, collaborative commer ce helps to optimize the web of relationships that an organization participates in, and is focused on building capabilities and improving the interactions that a company is engaged in. A collaboration system enables collaborative commerce for Kucera Clothiers; hence it serves its strategic needs.This project should be implemented as soon as possible, since the effectiveness of other information technology initiative such as a CRM system, ERP system or E-procurement system all relies heavily on efficient and reliable communication and collaboration. If other projects are developed without first enabling a stable, reliable and efficient method and platform for corporate communication and globalization among remotely located employees, office and geographically dispersed unit, there will be a high chance of project failure or impaired efficiency/implementation of these other projects.ReferencesBartel, Derrick, ‘Collaborative Commerce: A Strategic Perspective’, 2002

Managerial Skills

Time is an important resource in an organization; and a manager has to concentrate on effectively handling this resource.   One of the biggest problems in an organization would be to manage the time allocated to complete the work.   Only a few managers are able to handle this resource effectively.   A manager would have to determine the time taken for each process to be completed.   He would then have to determine ways in which the processes can be speeded up, and the effects the process of speeding up the workflow would have on the quality and the staff members.The manager may have to allocated several resources to effectively handle time such as human resources, logistics, support systems, IT systems, etc.   He would also have to identify the factors responsible for wasting time including telephone calls, personal visitors, unnecessary meetings, chatting of the staff members, indecisive staff, procrastination, problem situations, crisis situations, lack of communication, lack of rest, stress, poor technical knowledge and skills, poor planning and strategic management, not having a proper assistant to perform work, etc.   The organization may also have to change its policies in order to better manage time.   The manager should ensure that the staff members are not stressed too much (Total Success, 2007).A pretest measurement would help to determine the baseline data, before any activity is conducted.   It can be later compared to the posttest measurement.   The results would demonstrate the effectiveness of the activity.   In this way the manager would be studying the effectiveness of the activity.   Before a manager has a time management system in place, he would have to conduct a test to determine the baseline data (SBU, 2007).  A good pretest tool would be a questionnaire given to each staff member of how they manage time.   This is a good example of a pretest tool (SBU, 2007): –1. Time spend on sleeping:2. Time spend on per sonal hygiene3. Time spend on cooking/eating:4. Time taken to travel:5. Actual time spend in the office:6.   Time spend to complete one unit of work7.   Actual time allocated to complete the work:8.   Quality standards achieved:9.  Ã‚   Quality standards required:10.   Time spend in the office doing personal work:11.   Ways in which the time gets wasted:The staff members could also use a time used chart, in which every alternate hour or so they would enter the activity preformed (UMD, 2006): –The management can improve the time management using several strategies: –Having a strong plan in mind.   The manager should ensure he takes into consideration the resources available and the processes that would be involved during the performance of work. Using interactive software tools that can help the staff members to identify what has to be done, and within what amount of time it should be completed. Managers can have certain schedulers to help them plan the pe rformance of tasks and even use of hardware devices.Managers and the staff member should effectively complete the task at that particular moment than wait and keep it pending.   In this way procrastination can also be reduced. Focusing and concentrating on the tasks.   The staff members should be constantly prompted of the targets that have to be achieved.The manager should plan on short-term goals, which would effectively be in line with the long-term goals. Using assistants to perform the less important task, effectively saving the time of the staff member. Prioritizing the work that has to be performed and given importance.  Having activity logs and submitting work reports (Sonic, 2002 & Total Success, 2007)After implementing the time management improvement techniques, the manager would have to use same test tools.The results obtained should be determined.   This should be compared to the pretest data.   The effectiveness of the managerial skills in bringing about appro priate time management can be determined.References:Mind Tools (2007), Time Management, Retrieved on September 29, 2007, from Mind Tools Web site: https://www.mindtools.com/pages/main/newMN_HTE.htm?Sonic (2002), Time Management Tools, Retrieved on September 29, 2007, from Sonic Web site: http://sonic.net/~mfreeman/time.htmTotal Success (2007), Time Management Manage yourself, not your time, Retrieved on September 29, 2007, from Total Success Web site: http://www.tsuccess.dircon.co.uk/timemanagementtips.htmUniversity of Minnesota Duluth (2006), Time Use Chart, Retrieved on September 29, 2007, from UMD Web site: http://www.d.umn.edu/kmc/student/loon/acad/strat/time_use_chart.html

Coopertaive Learning

Cooperative learning is a teaching method used by educators in all grade levels, in all areas of curriculum, and there are many different ways that cooperative learning can be applied in the classroom. The use of cooperative learning centralizes on the goal of getting students to understand the material presented. Cooperative learning allows students to communicate their ideas with each other, brainstorm responses or ideas, and work together to solve problems. The importance of students becoming more involved with the learning process has been emphasized and needs to be implemented in classrooms around the globe (Ross, Seaborn, & Wilson, 2002). Multiple studies have been conducted on student-lead learning groups and the results are supportive of cooperative learning. â€Å"Research on cooperative learning is one of the greatest success stories in the history of educational research† (Slavin R. E. , Comprehensive approaches to cooperative learning, 1991). The enthusiasm for cooperative learning is widespread and this paper will explore the history and methods of cooperative learning. The strategy of cooperative learning was developed to reduce competition in American schools (Knowles, 1971). Knowles explains that in 1959 James Coleman sought to reduce competition in American schools, which he deemed to be a negative component to the education system (1971). Coleman conducted a two-year study of students at nine Midwest high schools and developed what he called a â€Å"climate of values† for the â€Å"adolescent society† in which he conducted his study. Based on his findings and research, Coleman suggested that instead of encouraging competition in a classroom setting, which he stated he felt impedes the process of education, schools should introduce a more cooperative approach to instruction (Knowles, 1971). Many researchers have since elaborated on the work of James Coleman. Currently, some of the most published researchers in the field are as follows: Dr. Robert Slavin, Dr. Spencer Kagan, David and Roger Johnson. Each of these researchers has developed theories and strategies that can be used to effective implement cooperative learning. Dr. Robert Slavin suggests cooperative learning for enhancing student achievement focuses on two important elements: group goals and individual accountability (Slavin R. E. , Synthesis of research on cooperative learning, 1991). Dr. Slavin reported that when group goals and individual accountability are used, achievement effects of cooperative learning are consistently positive (Slavin R. E. , Synthesis of research on cooperative learning, 1991). Dr. Slavin noted that positive results from the implementation of cooperative learning could be found at all grade levels, in all major subjects, and in rural, urban and suburban schools (Slavin R. E. , Synthesis of research on cooperative learning, 1991). Dr. Slavin goes on to state that the effects of cooperative education are equally positive for all levels of achievers (Slavin R. E. , Synthesis of research on cooperative learning, 1991). It is also important to mention that Dr. Slavin has found that the positive effects of cooperative learning have been found in areas such as the following: self-esteem, intergroup relations, acceptance of accountability, handicapped students, attitudes toward school and the ability to work cooperatively (Slavin R. E. , Synthesis of research on cooperative learning, 1991). Dr. Spencer Kagan’s model of cooperative learning advocates for two basic principles. Dr. Kagan states, â€Å"The world is not just competitive and in some important respects is becoming less so; I do not advocate exclusive use of cooperative learning methods, but rather a healthy balance of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic classroom structures to prepare students for the full range of social situations† (Kagan, 1999). Dr. Kagan’s structures stress positive interpersonal peer relationships, equality, self-esteem and achievement. Dr. Kagan reported that cooperative learning teaches empathy and an understanding of those who are different from oneself by building ethnic relation between students. In addition, Dr. Kagan has credited cooperative learning with increasing students’ higher level thinking skills (Kagan, 1999). Dr. Kagan stresses his ideas by stating, â€Å"At an accelerating rate we move into a rapidly changing information-based, high -technology, and interdependent economy. Along with the traditional role of providing students with basic skills and information, increasingly schools must produce students capable of higher-level thinking skills, communication skills, and social skills† (Kagan, 1999). David and Roger Johnson have identified five basic elements of cooperative learning. Johnson and Johnson state these pillars of cooperative learning to be the following: individual accountability, positive interdependence, face-to-face promotive interaction, social skills and group processing (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Johnson and Johnson have reported that it is critical for teachers to understand the five basic elements of cooperative learning. Johnson and Johnson state that understanding and developing the five elements, â€Å"†¦allows teachers to (a) adapt cooperative learning to their unique circumstances, needs, and students, (b) fine tune their use of cooperative learning, and (c) prevent and solve problems students have in working together (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Johnson and Johnson also stress that cooperative learning ensures all students are meaningfully and actively involved in learning, which will limit disruptive, off-task behaviors in the classroom. Cooperative learning is thought of as a versatile method of instruction that can be used in a variety of ways. Cooperative learning groups can be implemented to teach specific topic, to ensure knowledge and comprehension of information presented, or to provide long-term support for academic proce ss (Slavin & Madden, 2001). Formal cooperative learning groups are created to achieve a specific purpose, have fixed members and can have duration of one class period or several weeks. Johnson and Johnson describe formal cooperative learning groups as consisting of students working together to achieve a shared learning goal (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Informal cooperative learning groups are typically temporary and do not have fixed members. Johnson and Johnson state that, â€Å"During a lecture, demonstration, or film, informal cooperative learning can be used to (a) focus student attention on the material being learned, (b) set a mood conductive to learning, (c) help set expectations as to what will be covered in a class session, (d) ensure that students cognitively process material being taught, and (e) provide closure to an instructional session. † (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Cooperative based groups are long term, heterogeneous, and consist of three to four members. Johnson and Johnson describe cooperative based groups as base groups. Johnson and Johnson state, â€Å"Base groups give the support, encouragement, and assistance each member needs to make academic progress and develop cognitively and socially in healthy ways. Base groups meet daily in elementary school and twice a week in secondary school. They are permanent and provide the long-term caring peer relationships necessary to influence members consistently to work hard in school (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). In order for these types of cooperative learning group to be successful, it is essential for the five basic elements identified by Johnson and Johnson to be included. The basic elements are often referenced by the acronym â€Å"PIGS FACE†. If these elements are not incorporated then cooperative learning is not taking place. The five basic elements are outlined below with a description following each term. Positive interdependence is the percept ion gains that of individuals or groups are linked, so that one cannot succeed unless everyone is successful (Kagan, 1999) (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Individual accountability exists when each individual group member is assessed and results are given back to the student and the group. Individual accountability tests for understanding from individuals and prevents one member of the group from performing all the work (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Group processing exists when group members converse on the group achievement and individual achievement of goals. Group processing allows students to work through and difficulties relating to each other or the achievement of the group (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Social skills are the skills cooperative education groups need to develop to effectively work together and maintain the group (Slavin & Madden, 2001). It fosters the growth of social skills that are needed to succeed in the classroom, workplace and community in individuals that are socially unskilled (Orlich, Harder, Callahan, Trevisan, & Brown, 2010). Face-to-face promotive interaction promotes each group member’s success through helping, assisting, supporting, and encouraging each member to be successful (Johnson & Johnson, Making cooperative learning work, 1999). Once the five basic elements of cooperative learning have been addressed, the teacher can implement cooperative learning strategies in the classroom. There are wide varieties of cooperative learning strategies and a few are described below. Think-Pair-Share as described by Dr. Slavin, â€Å"This is a four-step discussion strategy that incorporates wait time and aspects of cooperative learning. Students and teachers learn to listen while a question is posed, think of a response, pair with a neighbor to discuss responses, and share their responses with the whole class. (Slavin R. E. , Comprehensive approaches to cooperative learning, 1991). Jigsaw as described by Dr. Kagan, â€Å"Students are divided into competency groups of four to six students, each of which is given a list of subtopics to research. Individual members of each group then break off to work with the â€Å"experts† from other groups, researching a part of the material being studied, after which they return to their starting body in the role of instructor for their subcategory. (Kagan, 1999) Student Team Achievement Divisions is a teaching method that is made up of five major components including a whole group presentation, student practice teams, quizzes on the presented information, setting goals for improved achievement levels, and team recognition based on performance (Slavin R. E. , Comprehensive approaches to cooperative learning, 1991). Roundtable is a strategy that can be used for brainstorming, reviewing or practicing while fostering teambuilding. There are two variations of roundtable that a teacher and use in the classroom. In sequential form, students are in groups of three or more with one-piece of paper and one writing instrument. The teacher poses a question that can have multiple answers. Students take turns writing their answer on the paper and passing the paper around the group. When time is called, the group with the most answers listed is recognized. In simultaneous form each student starts with a piece of paper, writes an answer and passes the paper, so multiple papers are being passed at once (Kagan, 1999). The three-step interview is a structured group activity. Students take turns being the interviewer and interviewee. Pairs then join to form groups of four. Students take turns introducing their partners and share what they learned from their partners (Kagan, 1999). Although aforementioned strategies are imperially based, there is a discussion-taking place about the value of cooperative learning. Most educators agree that cooperative learning celebrates diversity by allowing students to work with all types of people and allows students to acknowledge individual differences (Ross, Seaborn, & Wilson, 2002). Research has shown that cooperative learning can benefit student’s interpersonal development and provide more opportunities for personal feedback (Ross, Seaborn, & Wilson, 2002). In addition, researchers have found that cooperative learning actively engages students in learning and there is a variety of methods available for teachers to use (Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, Cooperative learning methods: A meta-analysis, 2000). Some critics of cooperative learning suggest that group work is an avoidance of teaching. They stress that cooperative learning places the burden of being responsible for each other’s learning on group members (Ross, Seaborn, & Wilson, 2002). Some research has shown that lower achieving students could potentially fall behind due to a passive nature or lack of self-confidence in the group. If high achieving students dominate group activities and discussions, lower achieving students might feel uncomfortable and isolated from the group, which could lead to the learning opportunity passing by them (Ross, Seaborn, & Wilson, 2002). Johnson, Johnson and Stanne summarize the research on cooperative learning in this way, â€Å"Knowing that cooperative learning can significantly increase student achievement when properly implemented does not mean, however, that all operationalizations of cooperative will be effective or that all operationalizations will be equally effective. † (Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, Cooperative learning methods: A meta-analysis, 2000) In conclusion, cooperative learning is an instructional approach that has been shown to promote a variety of positive cognitive, affective, and social outcomes. The intent of cooperative learning is to foster academic achievement through student discussions, learning from each other and dividing tasks to align with student strengths. I feel that cooperative learning gives students an opportunity to establish a group culture and work within the constraints of that culture. I believe that students will carry this cultural paradigm into adulthood. I also believe that cooperative learning promotes diversity and cross-cultural friendships. Through cooperative learning, I believe schools can play a significant role in reducing racism, prejudice and discrimination in the larger society.